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| Research Progress and Comparative Analysis of Non-Destructive Testing Technologies for Lithium Batteries |
| Kong Xiangbo1, Peng Lisha1, Jiang Chaofan1, Li Shisong1, Huang Songling1,2 |
1. Department of Electrical Engineering Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China;
2. State Key Laboratory of Power System Operation and Control Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China |
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Abstract Lithium batteries, with high energy density, long cycle life, and environmental compatibility, are widely applied in electric vehicles, portable electronics, and stationary energy storage. However, complex operating conditions often induce internal structural damage and functional degradation, leading to safety risks and performance loss. Conventional battery management systems (BMS), relying mainly on voltage, current, and surface temperature, cannot accurately capture early-stage internal defects such as electrode deformation, electrolyte anomalies, or lithium dendrite growth. This limitation has driven the development of high-precision, non-invasive non-destructive testing (NDT) technologies for structure and state monitoring.
This paper reviews seven major NDT techniques for lithium batteries: X-ray imaging, ultrasonic testing, magnetic resonance and magnetic field imaging, neutron imaging, Raman scattering, infrared detection, and fiber optic sensing. Their principles, applications, strengths, and weaknesses are compared, and future trends are outlined.
X-ray techniques use penetration and diffraction to achieve structural and chemical analysis. X-ray computed tomography (CT) provides multi-scale 3D/4D imaging of electrode morphology, lithium deposition, and crack propagation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) tracks crystalline phase transitions and lattice evolution, while X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) offer element-specific chemical state and interfacial reaction insights. Advantages include high resolution and combined structural-chemical information, but equipment cost and artefacts in dense materials limit applicability. Ultrasonic testing monitors acoustic time of flight, amplitude, and attenuation to infer density, modulus, and defects. Transmission, pulse-echo, and time-of-flight diffraction methods are used for state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) estimation, and for detecting lithium plating, gas generation, electrolyte wetting issues, and early thermal runaway. It is low-cost, sensitive, and suitable for in-situ use, though results are affected by temperature and structural complexity. Magnetic resonance and magnetic field imaging include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for local structural and ionic dynamics, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for 3D mapping of lithium distribution and electrolyte transport, and magnetic field imaging (MFI) for reconstructing internal current density. These provide element selectivity and dynamic visualization, but are limited by resolution, isotope abundance, and high equipment requirements. Neutron imaging offers high sensitivity to light elements and strong penetration through metal casings, enabling visualization of lithium distribution, electrolyte migration, gas evolution, and electrode ageing without disassembly. Integration with X-ray tomography enables correlative 4D imaging, but neutron source availability and cost restrict widespread use. Raman scattering uses inelastic light scattering to probe molecular structure and interfacial chemistry. It enables phase transition tracking, solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) characterization, and dendrite detection. Enhanced methods such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) improve sensitivity, though penetration depth and signal strength remain constraints. Infrared detection comprises infrared thermography, for non-contact surface temperature field monitoring, and infrared spectroscopy, for molecular-level reaction tracking. Thermography detects thermal anomalies and degradation; Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and related techniques reveal SEI formation and electrolyte decomposition pathways. These are contact-free and versatile, but affected by environmental factors and limited spatial resolution. Fiber optic sensing-including fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and Fabry-Perot interferometry-monitors temperature, strain, and mechanical-electrochemical coupling with high sensitivity and electromagnetic immunity. Applications include SOC/SOH estimation, early failure warning, and stress analysis. While adaptable, these systems require careful integration and long-term stability assurance. Comparative analysis shows X-ray and neutron imaging excel in structural resolution; ultrasound and fiber optics in real-time embedded monitoring; magnetic resonance and MFI in structural-dynamic correlation; and Raman/infrared spectroscopy in interfacial process analysis. Future NDT development will emphasize multi-modal integration, online inspection for manufacturing quality control, real-time in-operation diagnostics, and adaptability to extreme conditions. Key directions include portable X-ray CT, AI-enhanced image reconstruction, compact neutron sources, advanced optical signal enhancement, and machine-learning-based multi-sensor fusion.
By bridging laboratory diagnostics with deployment in production and operational environments, next-generation NDT will support safer, longer-lasting, and more efficient lithium battery systems, strengthening their role in sustainable energy applications.
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Received: 03 June 2025
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2026, Vol. 41 
